04 — References
Source Documents
& Standards
Authoritative references, advisory documents, and online resources cited across all tools in this system. Organized by application and subsection. Alaska DOT&PF materials, AASHTO, ASTM, USACE CRREL, and peer-reviewed literature. Last updated 4-9-2026
Classification Standards — Authoritative
Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
ASTM International, 2017.
Laboratory classification foundation for all USCS group symbols and criteria. Defines the boundary criteria (% passing No. 200, Cu, Cc, LL, PI) that underlie every decision branch in the soil identification tool.
Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
ASTM International, 2017.
Source for all field classification procedures — consistency, dry strength, dilatancy, toughness, plasticity, angularity tables, particle shape criteria, moisture descriptions, cementation, and soil structure terminology. The field counterpart to D2487.
Standard Practice for Description of Frozen Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
ASTM International, 1989.
Source for the frozen soil classification system: N, V, and ICE designations, ice structure descriptions, and thaw-stability criteria. Essential for Alaska field work where frozen soil conditions are encountered in boreholes.
Standard Test Methods for Moisture, Ash, and Organic Matter of Peat and Other Organic Soils
ASTM International.
Referenced for organic content testing methodology used to confirm field-based organic soil classifications.
Alaska Field Guide for Soil Classification
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2003.
Primary authoritative reference for this tool. Source for cobble/boulder percentage determination procedure, frozen soil chart, DOT&PF-specific organic classification thresholds, and Alaska-specific field procedures.
Peat and Organic Soil Classification System Chart
Central Region Materials, Alaska DOT&PF, March 2019.
Supersedes the 2003 manual for organic content thresholds: 2–5% slightly organic, 5–15% organic, 15–75% highly organic, >75% peat. Source for the coarse/fine-grained organic naming convention note.
Rock Classification — Authoritative
Classification of Rocks
Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 1.
DOT&PF-recommended primary division and rock naming system. Source for the igneous/sedimentary/metamorphic primary division logic, color index concept, and the principle of naming rocks on visible features rather than inference.
Suggested Methods for the Quantitative Description of Discontinuities in Rock Masses
International Society for Rock Mechanics. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 15.
Source for all 13 rock mass properties (A through M): wall strength, weathering grades, discontinuity type, orientation, roughness, aperture, infilling, spacing, persistence, number of sets, block size/shape, and seepage ratings.
Alaska Field Rock Classification and Structural Mapping Guide
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2003.
Primary authoritative rock reference. Source for ISRM-based mapping procedures, rock strength classification table (R0–R6), weathering grade table (I–VI), aperture descriptions, roughness profiles and JRC ranges, discontinuity spacing and persistence tables, and the Rock Mass Description and Discontinuity Survey data sheets.
Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, 2nd Ed.
Cambridge University Press. IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks.
Supplementary reference for igneous nomenclature. Used where DOT&PF naming system requires supplemental terminology for less common igneous rock types.
Advisory & Engineering References
Foundations on Rock, 2nd Ed.
E&FN Spon.
Source for detailed discussion of rock mass characterization categories, structural mapping illustration, and the five-category framework for rock mass description.
Rock Slopes
FHWA Report No. FHWA-HI-99-007.
Source for kinematic failure mode analysis (planar, wedge, toppling, circular), mapping methodology levels (critical features, line, window mapping), and rockfall hazard context.
Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties
Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 5, FHWA-IF-02-034.
Advisory reference for general field evaluation procedures and SPT blow count to consistency correlations.
Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual
McGraw-Hill.
Advisory reference for intact vs. in-situ rock definitions and general field investigation methodology.
Depositional Environment & Sedimentology
Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, 4th Ed.
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Source for grain transport and rounding theory, aeolian vs. fluvial vs. marine sorting mechanisms, carbonate depositional environments, and shale fissility development.
Applied Sedimentology, 2nd Ed.
Academic Press.
Source for depositional energy interpretation, crossbedding as paleo-current indicator, graded bedding and turbidite sequences, beach vs. fluvial gravel shape characteristics.
Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks
Hemphill Publishing.
Source for grain roundness and sphericity framework, textural maturity concept, and aeolian frosted grain surface descriptions.
Glossary of Geology, 3rd Ed.
American Geological Institute.
Source for formal definitions of depositional environment terminology used throughout the soil identification guide.
Alaska Geology & Geotechnical Context
Geology of the Southern Alaska Margin
In Plafker and Berg eds., The Geology of Alaska. Geological Society of America, DNAG Vol. G-1.
Source for Alaska terrane descriptions, Chugach and Prince William terrane composition, Coast Mountains batholith context, and accretionary complex rock types.
Quaternary Geology of the Kenai Lowland and Glacial History of the Cook Inlet Region, Alaska
USGS Professional Paper 443.
Source for glaciofluvial, glaciolacustrine, and glaciomarine stratigraphy of the Cook Inlet basin and Kenai Peninsula — directly relevant to Sterling Highway corridor work.
Engineering Geology of Anchorage, Alaska
GSA Reviews in Engineering Geology, Vol. VI.
Source for Bootlegger Cove Formation description, sensitivity, glaciomarine origin, and role in the 1964 Good Friday earthquake landslides. Reference for sensitive silt interpretation in field borings.
Quaternary Geology of Alaska
USGS Professional Paper 835.
Source for loess distribution in interior Alaska, permafrost zonation, and ice wedge polygon and ground ice classification. Foundational reference for any Interior Alaska site characterization.
Permafrost Map of Alaska
USGS Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map I-445.
Foundational reference for permafrost distribution context used in frozen soil interpretations throughout the guide.
Geochemical evidence for the origin of late Quaternary loess in central Alaska
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 43.
Source for Tanana Valley and Interior Alaska loess origin and aeolian transport from outwash plains. Contextualizes silt-dominated soil profiles common to Interior Alaska borings.
Clay Mineralogy & Sensitivity
Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 3rd Ed.
John Wiley and Sons.
Source for clay mineral descriptions (smectite, illite, kaolinite), plasticity and clay type relationships, quick clay sensitivity mechanisms, and the effect of salt leaching on marine clay strength. Also cited in the pavement design section.
Considerations on the sensitivity of Norwegian quick-clays
Géotechnique, 3(5).
Original framework for quick clay formation by salt leaching — applied to Alaska glaciomarine clay context, particularly Bootlegger Cove and similar Cook Inlet sediments.
Distress Classification
Distress Identification Manual for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program, 4th Revised Edition
FHWA-RD-03-031. Federal Highway Administration.
Foundational document for all distress types, definitions, and severity levels in the diagnostic guide. The standard classification system underlying pavement distress identification in the United States.
Binder Selection & Thermal Cracking
Superpave Mix Design Reference Manual
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Covers PG binder selection methodology. Relevant to the Alaska-specific binder grade and thermal cracking content in the distress guide — particularly low-temperature PG grade selection for interior Alaska conditions.
LTPPBind Documentation and PG Binder Selection Methodology
Federal Highway Administration, Long-Term Pavement Performance Program.
Documents the performance-grade binder selection methodology and reliability factors used in the pavement distress context for thermal cracking analysis.
Frost Susceptibility & Cold Regions
Frost Action in Soils
Engineer Manual EM 1110-3-138 and Technical Manual TM 5-852-4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.
Authoritative Alaska-relevant source for frost susceptibility and pavement frost design. Origin of the F1–F4 classification system and the Stefan equation for frost depth estimation.
Studded Tire Pavement Damage Research
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.
Agency-specific source for studded tire rutting content. Alaska DOT&PF has published internal research on studded tire pavement damage specific to Alaska conditions — directly applicable to the rutting distress section of the guide.
Subgrade Resilient Modulus & Seasonal Variation
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide — NCHRP Report 1-37A
National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board.
Covers seasonal Mr adjustment methodology. Source for thaw weakening and spring load restriction content; the seasonal resilient modulus framework directly applies to Alaska's pronounced freeze-thaw cycles.
Primary Source
Alaska Flexible Pavement Design Manual
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. Effective July 1, 2020.
Direct source for all calculator equations, tables, and limits. The governing design document for flexible pavement on DOT&PF projects. Available at dot.alaska.gov.
dot.alaska.gov ↗
Frost Susceptibility & Frozen Ground
Frozen Ground Engineering, 2nd Ed.
John Wiley & Sons / ASCE Press.
Standard reference for frost action mechanics, ice lens formation, cryosuction, and F1–F4 susceptibility classification.
A New Theory of Frost Heaving
Highway Research Board Proceedings, Vol. 11, pp. 168–172.
Original paper establishing the Casagrande criterion: >3% passing 0.02 mm (10% for uniform soils, Cu <5). The checker in the design tool is derived directly from this paper.
Frost Action in Soils / Pavement Design in Areas of Seasonal Frost
EM 1110-3-138 / TM 5-852-4; also FHWA-RD-77-168 and FHWA NHI-05-037.
Origin of F1–F4 classification and Stefan equation for frost depth. Covers the three design approaches for frost-affected subgrades and when each applies.
Quaternary Geology of Alaska
USGS Professional Paper 835.
Foundational reference for Alaska's surficial geology, permafrost distribution, and why freezing index values vary dramatically by region. Also cited in Soil ID section.
Pavement Design Theory & Mechanistic Methods
Pavement Analysis and Design, 2nd Ed.
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Explicitly recommended in AKFPD Chapter 4. Covers layered elastic theory, stress/strain analysis, the TAI fatigue equation, and the Ullidtz rutting equation.
Principles of Pavement Design, 2nd Ed.
John Wiley & Sons.
Cited directly in the AKFPD Manual. Classic treatment of flexible pavement theory and empirical design methods.
Modelling Flexible Pavement Response and Performance
Polyteknisk Forlag.
Source of the Per Ullidtz functional failure equation used in Alaska mechanistic design: Nf = 3.069×10⁹ × b × (E/E₀)0.36 × σv−2.82, with Alaska regional factor R = 2.75.
Pavement Analysis Using the Computer Program WESLEA
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Miscellaneous Paper GL-89-2.
Documents the WESLEA computational engine used in AKFPD v2.0 software.
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG)
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
National standard for advanced pavement design. Broader context for where Alaska's approach fits within the field.
Alaska-Specific Documents
Standard Specifications for Highway Construction — Divisions 300 & 400
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. dot.alaska.gov.
Governs P200 limits for D-1 base, Select Material Types A/B/C, Subbase F, and asphalt mixes. Division 300 (Bases & Subbases) and Division 400 (Asphalt) are the primary applicable divisions.
Alaska Soil Stabilization Manual
Report No. 60392. Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.
Required companion to AKFPD for any project using stabilized base courses (ATB, cement, lime, fly ash).
Development of the Alaska Excess Fines Design Method
Alaska DOT&PF Research Reports FHWA-AK-RD-80-4, 80-5, 82-2.
Original 120-section Alaska highway research study that produced the Excess Fines method, including the empirical basis for the Pcr/Pmax curves and deflection equation.
Preconstruction Manual — Sections 1180 & 450
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.
Pavement selection policy, LCCA requirements, and when stabilized bases are required. Section 1180 (Pavement) and Section 450 (Design Studies).
Materials, Soils & Test Methods
Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 3rd Ed.
John Wiley & Sons.
Explains why silt (ML) is the most frost-susceptible soil type and the particle-scale physics behind the Casagrande criterion. Also cited in Rock & Soil ID section.
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 9th Ed.
Cengage Learning.
Standard geotechnical text covering USCS classification, Atterberg limits, and resilient modulus testing in context.
Test Methods Referenced in the Design Calculator
ASTM International / AASHTO.
ASTM D2487 (USCS Classification) · ASTM D7369 (Resilient Modulus — Asphalt) · AASHTO T307 (Resilient Modulus — Soils & Aggregate) · ASTM D422 / D6913 (Grain Size Analysis — P200) · ASTM D4318 (Atterberg Limits — PI)
Traffic & ESAL Methodology
Traffic Monitoring Guide
Federal Highway Administration. fhwa.dot.gov.
Defines the FHWA vehicle classification scheme (Classes 1–13) that maps to DOT&PF's five truck categories and explains how load factors are derived from WIM data.
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Origin of the ESAL concept, the 18-kip dual-axle standard, and the load equivalency factor approach underlying the AKFPD load factors.
Permafrost & Arctic Engineering
Permafrost Engineering Design and Construction
John Wiley & Sons / National Research Council Canada.
Comprehensive guide; Chapter 8 covers transportation facilities on permafrost. Essential when MAAT approaches 25–28°F — the threshold range flagged in the design calculator.
Design of Roads in Permafrost Regions
CRREL Monograph 81-4 and associated technical reports. erdc.usace.army.mil.
Embankment thermal analysis, differential settlement, and maintenance on permafrost. Directly applicable when the design tool flags permafrost risk based on MAAT input.
Online Resources
NOAA NCEI
Historical temperature records for calculating site-specific freezing index values.
ncei.noaa.gov
UAF SNAP
Scenarios Network for Alaska & Arctic Planning — mapped Alaska climate data and future projections for regional FI estimates.
snap.uaf.edu
Alaska DGGS
Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys — geologic maps, surficial geology, and ground hazard publications for subgrade assessment.
dggs.alaska.gov
FHWA LTPP InfoPave
Long-term pavement performance database with cold-region test sections for real-world modulus values and performance validation.
infopave.fhwa.dot.gov